Lithium Extraction Assessment from Brines in Kerman Province: Challenges and Opportunities for Clean Energy Transition and Climate Change Mitigation

Articles in Press

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 School of Mining Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.

2 College of Environment, Department of Environment(DOE), Tehran, Iran.

3 Research Group of Environmental Assessment and Risks, Research Center of Environment and Sustainable Development (RCESD), Department of Environment, Tehran, Iran.

10.22059/ijmge.2025.388548.595218

Abstract

The global transition toward clean and sustainable energy systems has elevated lithium to a position of critical importance due to its exceptional electrochemical properties, low density, and lightweight characteristics. Lithium’s role in enabling the widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and portable electronics, coupled with the urgency of addressing climate change, underscores the need for efficient and sustainable resource exploration. This study focuses on assessing the potential for lithium extraction from brine sources in Kerman Province, Iran, with particular emphasis on the Shahrebabak region. Unlike previous studies that primarily focused on well-established lithium resources globally, this research explores an under investigated region in Iran, providing a new understanding of its lithium-bearing potential and associated challenges. By integrating advanced remote sensing techniques with field-based geochemical analyses, this study pioneers a comprehensive methodology that has not been applied to Iran's brine sources before. To identify lithium-rich zones, advanced remote sensing methods, including Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 imagery, were employed alongside geochemical analysis conducted via Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Fifteen brine samples were collected at depths ranging from 0.5 to 2 meters, with lithium concentrations measured between 94 and 105 ppm. The Mg/Li ratios in these samples varied between 1.2 and 3.8, indicating potential challenges in achieving cost-effective extraction. Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) analysis highlighted promising lithium-bearing zones, which were further validated through field sampling. The geochemical analysis of brine revealed that magnesium, potassium, sodium, and calcium are the dominant elements in the region, with lithium and boron present in trace amounts. Despite the presence of lithium, its relatively low concentration and high Mg/Li ratios suggest that the economic feasibility of large-scale lithium extraction in Shahrebabak remains limited. However, the study confirms the potential for lithium occurrence in Iran’s brine resources and highlights the need for further research into alternative extraction methods and the evaluation of other regions with more favorable geochemical conditions. This study contributes to the global discourse on clean energy and climate change mitigation by providing a foundational framework for lithium resource exploration in Iran. It aligns with the sustainable development goals by promoting environmentally compatible resource utilization, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and fostering economic growth through the development of strategic clean energy resources. Further multidisciplinary research efforts are essential to fully realize Iran’s lithium potential and support the global transition to a greener energy future.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

[1] Sims, R.E., 2004. Renewable energy: a response to climate change. Solar energy, 76(1-3), pp.9-17.
[2] Panwar, N.L., Kaushik, S.C. and Kothari, S., 2011. Role of renewable energy sources in environmental protection: a review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(3), pp.1513-1524.
[3] Scrosati, B. and Garche, J., 2010. Lithium batteries: Status, prospects and future. Journal of Power Sources, 195(9), pp.2419-2430.
[4] Gaines, L., Nelson P. (2009) Lithium ion batteries: possible materials issues in U.S. Department of Energy. Agonnee National Laboratory Publication, Washington, D.C.
[5] Wanger, T.C., 2011. The Lithium future—resources, recycling, and the environment. Conservation Letters, 4(3), pp.202-206.
[6] Vikström, H., Davidsson, S. and Höök, M., 2013. Lithium availability and future production outlooks. Applied Energy, 110, pp.252-266.
[7] Nygren, E., Aleklett, K. and Höök, M., 2009. Aviation fuel and future oil production scenarios. Energy Policy, 37(10), pp.4003-4010.
[8] IEA. World Energy Outlook 2008. <http://www.iea.org>.
[9] Hoegh-Guldberg, O. and Bruno, J.F., 2010. The impact of climate change on the world’s marine ecosystems. Science, 328(5985), pp.1523-1528.
[10] Walther, G.R., Post, E., Convey, P., Menzel, A., Parmesan, C., Beebee, T.J., Fromentin, J.M., Hoegh-Guldberg, O. and Bairlein, F., 2002. Ecological responses to recent climate change. Nature, 416(6879), p.389.
[11] Munk, L.A., Hynek, S.A., Bradley, D., Boutt, D., Labay, K. and Jochens, H., 2016. Lithium brines: A global perspective. Reviews in Economic Geology, 18, pp.339-365.
[12] Schulz, K.J., DeYoung, J.H., Seal, R.R. and Bradley, D.C. eds., 2018. Critical Mineral Resources of the United States: Economic and Environmental Geology and Prospects for Future Supply. Geological Survey.
[13] Garrett, D. 2004. Handbook of lithium and natural calcium chloride: Their deposits, processing, uses and properties. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press.
[14] Gruber, P.W., Medina, P.A., Keoleian, G.A., Kesler, S.E., Everson, M.P. and Wallington, T.J., 2011. Global lithium availability: A constraint for electric vehicles?. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 15(5), pp.760-775.
[15] Abrams, M., 2000. The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER): data products for the high spatial resolution imager on NASA's Terra platform. international Journal of Remote sensing, 21(5), pp.847-859.
[16] Jensen, J.R., 2015. Introductory Digital Image Processing: A Remote Sensing Perspective.
[17] Rajesh, H.M., 2004. Application of remote sensing and GIS in mineral resource mapping-An overview. Journal of Mineralogical and Petrological Sciences, 99(3), pp.83-103.
[18] Speirs, J., Contestabile, M., Houari, Y. and Gross, R., 2014. The future of lithium availability for electric vehicle batteries. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 35, pp.183-193.
[19] Blomgren, G.E., 2017. The development and future of lithium ion batteries. Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 164(1), pp.A5019-A5025.
[20] Curry, C., 2017. Lithium-ion battery costs and market. Bloomberg New Energy Finance, June.
[21] USGS. Lithium – mineral commodity summary 2019; 2019 <http:// minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/>.
[22] Brown, T.J., Idoine, N.E., Raycraft, E.R., Shaw, R.A., Hobbs, S.F., Everett, P., Deady, E.A. and Bide, T., 2018. World Mineral Production 2012-16. British Geological Survey.
[23] Bradley, D., Stillings, L., Jaskula, B., Munk, L., & McCauley, A. (2017). Lithium. Critical Mineral Resources of the United States–Economic and Environmental Geology and Prospects for Future Supply. https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802K.
[24] Ettehadi, A., Chuprin, M., Mokhtari, M., Gang, D., Wortman, P., & Heydari, E. (2024). Geological insights into exploration and extraction of lithium from oilfield produced-water in the USA: A review. Energy & Fuels, 38(12), 10517–10541. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.4c00732
[25] Mousavinezhad, S., Nili, S., Fahimi, A., & Vahidi, E. (2024). Environmental impact assessment of direct lithium extraction from brine resources: Global warming potential, land use, water consumption, and charting sustainable scenarios. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 205, 107583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2024.107583
[26] Schenker, V., Bayer, P., Oberschelp, C., & Pfister, S. (2024). Is lithium from geothermal brines the sustainable solution for Li-ion batteries? Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 199, 114456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114456
[27] Tabelin, C. B., Dallas, J., Casanova, S., Pelech, T., Bournival, G., Saydam, S., & Canbulat, I. (2021). Towards a low-carbon society: A review of lithium resource availability, challenges and innovations in mining, extraction and recycling, and future perspectives. Minerals Engineering, 163, 106743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2020.106743
[28] Fuentealba, D., Flores-Fernández, C., Troncoso, E., & Estay, H. (2023). Technological tendencies for lithium production from salt lake brines: Progress and research gaps to move towards more sustainable processes. Resources Policy, 83, 103572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2023.103572
[29] Vera, M. L., Torres, W. R., Galli, C. I., Chagnes, A., & Flexer, V. (2023). Environmental impact of direct lithium extraction from brines. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 4(3), 149–165. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00387-5
[30] Sutama, C., Ashat, A., & Alkano, D. (2023). Economic assessment of lithium extraction from geothermal brine: Comparative analysis worldwide and Indonesia's prospects.
[31] Krishnan, R., & Gopan, G. (2024). A comprehensive review of lithium extraction: From historical perspectives to emerging technologies, storage, and environmental considerations. Cleaner Engineering and Technology, 20, 100749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2024.100749
[32] Nikkhah, H., Ipekçi, D., Xiang, W., Stoll, Z., Xu, P., Li, B., McCutcheon, J. R., & Beykal, B. (2024). Challenges and opportunities of recovering lithium from seawater, produced water, geothermal brines, and salt lakes using conventional and emerging technologies. Chemical Engineering Journal, 498, 155349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.155349
[33] Rentier, E. S., Hoorn, C., & Seijmonsbergen, A. C. (2024). Lithium brine mining affects geodiversity and Sustainable Development Goals. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 202, 114642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114642
[34] Yaksic, A. and Tilton, J.E., 2009. Using the cumulative availability curve to assess the threat of mineral depletion: The case of lithium. Resources Policy, 34(4), pp.185-194.
[35] Warren, J.K., 2006. Evaporites: sediments, resources and hydrocarbons. Springer Science & Business Media.
[36] Chagnes, A. and Swiatowska, J. eds., 2015. Lithium process chemistry: Resources, extraction, batteries, and recycling. Elsevier.
[37] Xiao, G., Tong, K., Zhou, L., Xiao, J., Sun, S., Li, P., & Yu, J. (2012). Adsorption and desorption behavior of lithium ion in spherical PVC–MnO₂ ion sieve. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 51(33), 10921–10929. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie300087s
[38] Mozani Afarani, M. (2013). Lithium presence in brines and its extraction process (Master's thesis, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology).
[39] Bradley, D., Munk, L., Jochens, H., Hynek, S. and Labay, K., 2013. A preliminary deposit model for lithium brines. US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey
[40] Kesler, S.E., Gruber, P.W., Medina, P.A., Keoleian, G.A., Everson, M.P. and Wallington, T.J., 2012. Global lithium resources: Relative importance of pegmatite, brine and other deposits. Ore Geology Reviews, 48, pp.55-69.
[41] Davari, N., Lak, R., & Rozeh Kar, S. (2017). Monitoring the trend of changes in the percentage of major elements in the Urmia Lake brine over a three-month period. In Proceedings of the International Congress on Sciences and Engineering (pp. 45-50). Hamburg, Germany: Permanent Secretariat of the Congress.
[42] Soleimani Khalaji, M. (2016). Lithium extraction from Urmia Lake brine (Master's thesis, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology).
[43] Moazeni, M., Hajipour, H., Askari, M. and Nusheh, M., 2015. Hydrothermal synthesis and characterization of titanium dioxide nanotubes as novel lithium adsorbents. Materials Research Bulletin, 61, pp.70-75.
[44] Chitrakar, R., Kanoh, H., Miyai, Y. and Ooi, K., 2001. Recovery of lithium from seawater using manganese oxide adsorbent (H1. 6Mn1. 6O4) derived from Li1. 6Mn1. 6O4. Industrial & engineering chemistry research, 40(9), pp.2054-2058.
[45] Nishihama, S., Onishi, K. and Yoshizuka, K., 2011. Selective recovery process of lithium from seawater using integrated ion exchange methods. Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange, 29(3), pp.421-431.
[46] Umeno, A., Miyai, Y., Takagi, N., Chitrakar, R., Sakane, K. and Ooi, K., 2002. Preparation and adsorptive properties of membrane-type adsorbents for lithium recovery from seawater. Industrial & engineering chemistry research, 41(17), pp.4281-4287.
[47] Fasel, D. and Tran, M.Q., 2005. Availability of lithium in the context of future D–T fusion reactors. Fusion engineering and design, 75, pp.1163-1168.
[48] Zheng, M. and Liu, X., 2009. Hydrochemistry of salt lakes of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China. Aquatic Geochemistry, 15(1-2), pp.293-320.
[49] British Geological Survey. (BGS), Minerals UK, Lithium Profile. 2016. Available online:
[50] Meshram, P., Pandey, B.D. and Mankhand, T.R., 2014. Extraction of lithium from primary and secondary sources by pre-treatment, leaching and separation: A comprehensive review. Hydrometallurgy, 150, pp.192-208.
[51] Hasani Pak, A. A. (2012). Mineral sampling (Exploration, extraction, and processing). Tehran University Press.
[52] Geochemical exploration guidelines for large-scale stream sediments (1:25000). (2011). Publication No. 540.
 [53] Rayegani, B., Barati S., Goshtasb H., Gachpaz S., Ramezani J., and Sarkheil H.. (2020). “Sand and Dust Storm Sources Identification: A Remote Sensing Approach.” Ecological Indicators 112: 106099. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106099.
[54] Rayegani, B. Barati, S. Goshtasb, H. Sarkheil H., Ramezani J. (2019). An effective approach to selecting the appropriate pan-sharpening method in digital change detection of natural ecosystems, Ecol. Inform., 53, p. 100984. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoinf.2019.100984
[55] Kheirandish, Z., Raygani, B., & Badaq Jamali, J. (2015). Dust phenomenon detection in southwestern Iran using MODIS data. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Dust Storms (pp. 15-20). Ahvaz, Iran: Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz.
[56] De Carvalho, O.A. and Meneses, P.R., 2000, February. Spectral correlation mapper (SCM): an improvement on the spectral angle mapper (SAM). In Summaries of the 9th JPL Airborne Earth Science Workshop, JPL Publication 00-18 (Vol. 9). JPL Publication Pasadena, CA.
[57] Girouard, G., Bannari, A., El Harti, A. and Desrochers, A., 2004, July. Validated spectral angle mapper algorithm for geological mapping: comparative study between QuickBird and Landsat-TM. In XXth ISPRS congress, geo-imagery bridging continents, Istanbul, Turkey (pp. 12-23).
[58] Kuching, S., 2007. The performance of maximum likelihood, spectral angle mapper, neural network and decision tree classifiers in hyperspectral image analysis. Journal of Computer Science, 3(6), pp.419-423.
[59] Pournamdari, M., Hashim, M. and Pour, A.B., 2014. Application of ASTER and Landsat TM Data for Geological Mapping of Esfandagheh Ophiolite Complex, Southern I ran. Resource Geology, 64(3), pp.233-246.
[60] Rashmi, S., Addamani, S., Ravikiran, A., 2014. Spectral Angle Mapper Algorithm for Remote Sensing Image Classification. International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology. Available online: http://ijiset.com/v1s4/IJISET_V1_I4_27.pdf
International Journal of Mining and Geo-Engineering

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript
Available Online from 16 February 2025

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics